Healthy Eating is Healthy Living Essay Example for Free

Healthy Eating is Healthy Living EssayDid you know that the money spent to sell people with illnesses related to the lack of health forges up 9.1 percent of the Americas total medical expenses? That is to the highest degree 78.5 billion dollars (CDC). If we all eat healthier, expenses equivalent these could be lowered. That is why kids, especially students, should eat more kempt foods. All of us know that feeding our fruits and vegetables is important for our health. But how important is it? Healthy eating andtocks actually reduce a persons endangerment from developing any illnesses such diabetes, obesity, hypertension, etc. Foods with the proper nutrients and vitamins can increase a persons immunity so that they will not be susceptible to the diseases. For example, a higher calcium intake can reduce the risk for developing diabetes (M.N.T). According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, a minimum of 400 grams of fruits and vegetables must be eaten by kids ages 11- 16 per day (CDC).These atomic number 18 the necessary amounts to continue a grave health and not get sick. Healthy eating helps you maintain a good weight. About one to two months ago, my check, Sutter Middle School, compulsory everyone to be part of the physical fitness program. Students must have their weight and height measured during this program. I noticed that there were students who were really nervous about measuring their weight. I realized that kids with the lack of health can sometimes feel self-conscious when it comes to their weight, whether it being underweight, overweight, or obese. Depending on the age, a person must consume a consistent amount of calories per day to maintain a decent weight. A healthy diet consisting of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, etc. offers a good and balanced calorie supply.Fatty foods, like potato chips, soda, pizza, hamburgers, etc. contain too many calories per serving. For moderately active kids, males ages 14-18 can have 2200-2800 calories per day and females ages 14-18 can have 2000 calories per day (Exercise). We have all heard that eating a healthy diet is expensive, and people have used that as an excuse for not eating a healthy diet, but healthy foods do not necessarily cost more than less healthy foods, says Andrea Carlson, an economist from the U.S. Department of Agricultures frugal Research Service. Junk foods may be convenient and tasty, but they dont cost any more than fresh and healthy produce. The price of carrots is half(a) the price of potato chips by portion size. According to AndreaCarlsons and her colleague Elizabeth Frazos studies, when considering portion size, the least to most expensive types of food are grains, dairy, vegetables, fruit, protein and less healthy foods. (Carlson).Another important benefit from eating healthy is energy. Eating healthy allows students to have the energy to perform intumesce in school and sports. Foods that contain a lot of nutrients and vitamin s offer a long digestion time, giving you a slower and stable release of energy (Straight Health). The prolonged the digestion will take, the longer your energy will last. Principals often call during the week standardized testing to say to get plenty of rest and eat a healthy breakfast. A healthy breakfast can actually help students with testing because a meal containing complex carbohydrates, protein, fat, etc. can prevent a drop in family sugar and allow students to last throughout the day (Healthier).Many people often think, Well foods with a bunch of sugar can make you energetic. That is true. Though that is true, junk foods with a lot of simple carbohydrates, also known as sugar, create a big boost in energy but also create a sugar crash. A sugar crash is when you consume foods that are loaded with sugar and lack other nutrients. Then later, your blood sugar suddenly spikes down, causing fatigue and dizziness, negatively affecting students school performances (Straight Healt h). Many beneficial consequences can be made if students eat more healthy foods. It can help students reduce their risk from developing any illnesses, maintain a good and balanced weight, and allow them to have the energy to perform well in school and/or sports. What are you waiting for? Go grab a healthy snack and enjoy it

Educational Psychology study Essay Example for Free

Educational Psychology study EssayThe study was d unrivaled by Penny Clunies-Ross, Emma Little and Mandy Kienhuis, (2008). It is titled Self-reported and imperious use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with t each(prenominal)er stress and student behavior. The study was do with primary school instructors in Australia and examined the teachers self-report on the behavior management strategies that they use in the classroom and how these affect their stress level and the students behavior.The literature reviewed for this study discussed research done in quad areas which were used as the theoretical base for the study. One is the level of disruptive behavior in schools. The second is the teacher stress and its causes. Third is the relationship amid the two. And fourth is the type of classroom strategies that teachers use which are categorized as proactive and reactive. The proactive strategies have been described as a more posit ive approach that is disallowive.The reactive strategies are more negative and remedial. The proactive strategies have been found to be more effective. This study therefore aims to investigate the relationship amidst primary school teachers self-reported and actual use of management strategies, and to identify how the use of proactive and reactive strategies is related to teacher stress and student behavior. The supposition was that using reactive strategies would result in higher levels of teacher stress and disgrace on-task behavior of the students.Also that using proactive strategies would result in lower levels of teacher stress and higher on-task behavior of the students. The sample was obtained by contacting principals of the schools. First convenience sampling was used, and then hit-or-miss phone calls to ensure that five schools from each district in Melbourne were involved in the study. Data was collected by questionnaires to all teachers and observations of those who volunteered to caseicipate. The data was collected and study by SPSS.In general the results showed that theory one was supported while hypothesis two was not supported. The study was generally well done. The literature review was comprehensive and discussed a wide orbit of studies from as early as 1986 to 2003, showing the range of research on the topic over the period of time. It was also well organized into sections. The sampling proficiency was straightforward. Persisting until each district was represented by five schools was good. However the final sample was ninety seven participants from twenty one schools.This means an bonny of less than five teachers from each school. It may have been better to have surveyed fewer schools but more teachers from each school. The culture of the school often affects teacher stress so that the small number of teachers from a large number of schools may not be reflective of the levels and causes of stress in whatsoever one of the schools. The effect of the classroom management strategies used in one school may not completely relate to the teacher stress at that school. The results were analyzed as one sample, rather than synopsis by school.Therefore there is no examination of whether the difference in school culture, (if in fact any differences exist) affected the study. However, the study did an analysis of the multivariate effects of gender, level of qualifications and years of teaching experience and found that they were not predictors of teacher stress. These are important variables to include as possible effectors of teacher stress. The study presented a lot of detail on the sample and the materials. However there should have been more detail on the procedure- how exactly were the observations set up and carried out.The report only says After the 30-minute observation had been conducted in the teachers classroom, observation and questionnaire data were matched using the four-digit code. The analysis of data wa s another section that was well presented. This section was once again well organized into sub- sections which made reading and following the results much easier. All the data were represented by well-laid out and well- labeled tables which were easy to read. This structure was repeated even in the discussion so that the reader was able to follow the analysis of the results and the discussion for each research question or issue.That was in fact one of the key aspects that made this study encouraging to read- that the subsections were repeated in each part of the study- literature review, data analysis and discussion. An important aspect of this study was the use of both questionnaires (self-report) for teacher behavior and observations. It was significant to educational research on the tout ensemble to examine the relationship between the two, since generally self-reports alone cannot be relied upon for accurate measures of behavior.The significant positive correlation between th e teachers reported use of strategies, both proactive and reactive, and what the researchers observed helps to make self-reports a more reliable tool in educational research. The study ends with two important sections- methodological limitations and suggestions for further research. Discussions in these two sections show the researchers awareness of the limitations of the study despite the fact that it is a good piece of research and it helps the reader to understand why certain things were not done in a particular way.One example is this study is the mention that the sampling though it seemed random in fact was not completely random as the teachers who volunteered for the study may be teachers who are not particularly stressed, or that the stressed teachers may not have been so willing to participate. secondly the number of teachers volunteering to be observed was quite small. The study does not mention the actual number. A section that I would have liked to see include in this st udy was one on ethical considerations. In general the study was a useful one, well conducted and reported.It investigated the effect of proactive and reactive strategies as classroom management techniques on teachers stress levels. The study did in fact find that the use of proactive strategies had less effect on teachers stress. This would be the more or less important benefit to teachers to help them to keep the stress of teaching to a minimum. They could be encouraged by these results to focus on implementing activities in the classroom that would prevent classroom disruptions, rather than having to use their attention and energy intervening in classroom disruptions and losing teaching time.The study also looked at the effect of these strategies on students on-task behavior, and again found that the proactive strategies fostered more on-task behavior. This is also useful to the teachers to keep students focused on their work and lessen the disruptions in the classroom.ReferenceC lunies-Ross, P. , Little, E. and Kienhuis, M. (2008) Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with teacher stress and student behavior, Educational Psychology, 286,693 710

Definition And Types Of Anxiety English Language Essay

Definition And Types Of disturbance face Language EssayIn order to understand the specific type of dread that scholars experience in a outside(prenominal) vocal parley classroom, it is important to first consider anxiousness in general terms.As a psychological construct, worry is described as a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly associated with an mark (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 3). Speiberger (1976, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 13) distinguished apprehension from fear by pointing out that although disturbance and fear be both unpleasant emotional reactions to the stimulus conditions sensed as threatening, fear is usually derived from a real, objective danger in the external environment while the threatening stimulus of apprehension may non be known.Spielberger (1983, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) defined solicitude as the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonom ic nervous system. More specifically, Morris, David, Hutchings (1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) claimed that general dread consists of two comp binglents worry and emotionality. Worry or cognitive anxiety refers to prejudicious expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the property at hand, and possible consequences, and emotionality or corporate anxiety concerns ones perceptions of the physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience, which are indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states, lots(prenominal) as nervousness, upset stomach, pounding heart, sweating, and tension (Morris, David, Hutchings, 1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41, cited in Cubucku, 2007, p. 134). trace anxiousness, State Anxiety, and Situation-specific AnxietyMacIntyre Gardner (1991, p. 87-92) determine three approaches to the study of anxiety, which are mark anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety.Trait anxiety is an several(prenominal)s li kelihood of becoming anxious in all situation (Spielberger, 1983, cited in MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 87). As trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality characteristic, a person who is trait anxious would likely run anxious in many different kinds of situations, more frequently or more intensely than most quite a little do (Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). This approach to anxiety explore has been criticized in that the interpretation of trait anxiety would be meaningless without being considered in interaction with situations because a particular situation may be perceived as anxiety-provoking by some but non by others although those people may have interchangeable trait anxiety scores (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 88).State anxiety, in contrast to the stable nature of trait anxiety, is molybdenumary and thus non an enduring characteristic of an individuals personality. It is the apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 9 0). In other run-in, it is a transient anxiety, an unpleasant emotional temporary state, a response to a particular anxiety-provoking stimulus such as an important bear witness (Spielberger, 1983, cited in Wang, 2005, p.13, and cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 4). The higher the level of trait anxiety an individual possess, the higher the level of state anxiety he or she may experience in stressful situations (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90). The state-anxiety approach to anxiety explore has been criticized for asking the question Are you nervous now? instead of Did this situation make you nervous? in other words, it does not the subjects to ascribe their anxiety experience to any particular source (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90).Situation-specific anxiety reects a trait anxiety that recurs consistently oer time within a given situation (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 87 Spielberger, Anton and Bedell, 1976, cited in Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). Zheng (2008, p. 2) proposed that the three c ategories of anxiety net be identified on a continuum from st mightiness to transience, with trait anxiety relate to a generally stable predisposition to be anxious across situations on one end, state anxiety related to a temporary unpleasant emotional state on the other, and situational-specific anxiety related to the probability of becoming anxious in particular situations in the middle of the continuum. fit in to MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, p. 90), situation-specific anxiety shadower be considered as trait anxiety, which is limited to a specific context. This perspective examines anxiety reactions in a well-defined situation such as public speaking, during tests, when solving mathematics problems, or in a contrary talking to class (MacIntyre Gardner, 1991, p. 90).Facilitating Anxiety and Debilitating AnxietyFacilitating anxiety improves tuition and motion, while debilitating anxiety is associated with poor attainment and performance. According to Scovel (1978, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 10), anxiety, in its debilitating and facilitating forms, serves simultaneously to displace and to warn the learner. Facilitating anxiety occurs when the difficulty level of the task triggers the proper amount of anxiety (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2). In such case, facilitating anxiety motivates the learner to fight the unseasoned learning task it gears the learner emotionally for approach behavior (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11). However, although a certain level of anxiety may be beneficial, too much anxiety can become debilitating it motivates the learner to flee the new learning task and stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt turning away behavior which may lead to dodging of control and inefficient work performance (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2 Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11).Such phenomenon can be best described by the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which suggests a curvilinear association between arousal a nd performance (Wilson, 2006, p. 45). When represented graphically on an inverted U-shaped curve, the Yerkes-Dodson Law shows that too little arousal produces nominal performance moderate arousal enhances performance and reaches a peak at the top of the curve after that, too much arousal will over again hinder performance (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92).FIGURE 1 (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92)Anxiety in orthogonal Language LearningLanguage learning anxiety has been classified as a situation-specic anxiety, or a trait which recurs consistently over time within the given context of phraseology learning situations, that is, the linguistic communication classrooms (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991 Horwitz, 2001).Horwitz et al. (1986) were the first to get by strange language anxiety as a separate and distinct phenomenon particular to language learning (Young, 1991, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16). According to Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 128), unlike language anxiety is a distinct complex of self-percep tions, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom learning arising from the singularity of the language learning dish out.Other researchers likewise proposed similar definitions. Oh (1992, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16) perceived of foreign language anxiety as a situation-specific anxiety students experience in the classroom, which is characterized by negative self-centered thoughts, feelings of inadequacy, fear of failure, and emotional reactions. In a similar vein, MacIntyre and Gardner (1994, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 16) described foreign language anxiety as the feelings of tension and apprehension, which are particularly associated with activities in a indorse language learning context.According to Horwitz (1986, p. 126), anxiety centers on the two basic task requirements of foreign language learning listening and speaking, and difficulty in speaking in class is probably the most frequently cited concern of the anxious foreign language students. On the other hand, Hilleson (19 96, cited in Matsuda Gobel, 2004, p. 22), in his journal study, identified various types of anxiety related to different skill areas the participants in his research demonstrated anxiety related to not only speaking and listening but also reading and writing. Although research into foreign language anxiety has been almost entirely associated with the viva voce aspects of language use, there has been a recent trend to identify the relationship between anxiety and other language proficiencies ((Horwitz, 2001, p. 120 Matsuda Gobel, 2004, p. 22). According to Tallon (2008, p. 7), while previous studies suggested that foreign language classroom anxiety is a more general type of anxiety about learning a second language with a strong speaking anxiety element, recent research on foreign language anxiety showed the existence of language-skill-specific anxieties listening, reading, and writing.The Measurement of Anxiety in Foreign Language LearningGenerally, there are three major ways of m easuring anxiety in research, including behavioral observation physiological assessment such as heart rates or blood pressure tests and participants self-reports of their internal feelings and reactions (Casado Dereshiwsky, 2001 Daly, 1991 cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 3). According to Zheng (2008, p. 3), participants self-reports are by far the most common way of examining the anxiety phenomenon in educational research.Early explore on Foreign Language AnxietyAs anxiety is a complex, multi-faceted construct (Phillips, 1992, p. 14), it is not surprising that early studies of the relationship between anxiety and language learning provided mixed and confusing results. Youngs (1991, p. 438-439) review of cardinal studies that examining how anxiety interferes with language learning and performance showed inconsistent results both within and across studies, and she concluded that research in the area of anxiety as it relates to second or foreign language learning and performance was scatte red and inconclusive.According to Horwitz (2010, p. 157), Scovels review of the then available literature on anxiety and language learning can be considered a turning point in the study of foreign language learning anxiety. Scovel (1978, cited in Horwitz, 2001, p. 113) attributed the truly conflicting set of findings to equivocalness in the conceptualization and measurement of anxiety. He argued that since the early studies employed different anxiety measures such as test anxiety or facilitating-debilitating anxiety, etc, it was understandable that they represent different relationships between anxiety and language learning. Some studies name the anticipated negative relationship between anxiety and language achievement, but there were also several studies which piece no relationship, and positive relationships between anxiety and second language achievement were also identified. For example, in a research conducted by Chastain in 1975 (cited in Horwitz, 2010, p. 156), the direct ions of the correlational statisticss between anxiety (test anxiety) and language learning (course grades) in three languages (French, German, and Spanish) were not consistent, indicating three levels of correlation positive, negative, and near zero. Backman (1976, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 156) examined Venezuelan students learning English in the US, whose language progress measured by a placement test, a listening comprehension test, and teachers ratings did not show a significant correlation with any of the anxiety measures. Kleinmann (1977, cited in Horwitz, 2010, p. 156) utilized the facilitating-debilitating anxiety framework to study Spanish-speaking and Arabic-speaking ESL students, and found that learners with more facilitating anxiety had a lower tendency toward avoidance behavior in the oral production of linguistically difficult English constructions while there was no evidence that debilitating anxiety negatively influenced their oral performance.Horwitz, Horwitz, and C opes Construct of Foreign Language AnxietyIt is essential to trace the development and subsequent use of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al., 1986), as this instrument has been employed so widely (in its original form, or translated, or adapted) and with such consistent results since it first appeared. As it has been observed to be highly trustworthy (Horwitz, 1986 Aida, 1994 Rodriguez Abreu, 2003), I was interested in using it for my research.3.2.1. Development of the FLCASAccording to Horwitz (1986b, p. 559), research into the relationship between anxiety and language achievement had been held back by the need of a reliable and valid measure of anxiety specific to language learning. She further stated that although teachers and students generally felt that anxiety is an obstacle to be outperform in learning a second language, the empirical literature at that time failed to adequately define second language anxiety and to demonstrate a clear-cut relatio nship between anxiety and language achievement or performance. She suggested that one likely explanation for the inconclusive results of previous studies was that existing measures of anxiety did not test an individuals response to the specific stimulus of language learning. The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale was developed so as to provide researchers with a standard instrument for such purpose (Horwitz, 1986b, p. 559). This self-report measure was claimed to evaluate the degree of anxiety, as evidenced by negative performance expectancies and social comparisons, psycho-physiological symptoms, and avoidance behaviors (Horwitz, 1986b, p. 559). The cause stated that the scales items were developed from student reports, clinical experience, and a review of related instruments.3.2.2. Conceptual Foundations of Foreign Language AnxietyFrom a theoretical viewpoint, Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 127) argued that foreign language anxiety implies performance evaluation within an academi c and social context. They therefore identified the three related performance anxieties communication apprehension test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation, which are believed to provide useful conceptual building blocks for a description of foreign language anxiety (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). However, Horwitz (1986, p. 128 2010, p. 158) also emphasized that foreign language anxiety is not a simple combination of these performance anxieties transferred to foreign language learning. Instead, it is perceived as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128).Communication apprehension was originally defined by McCroskey (1977, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 156) as an individuals level of fear or anxiety associated with both real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. According to McCroskey (1984, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 17), the typical behavior patterns of communicatively apprehensive people are communication avoidance, communication withdrawal, and communication disruption. According to Horwitz (1986, p. 127), due to its emphasis on interpersonal interactions, the construct of communication apprehension plays an important role in language learning. worry in speaking in groups (oral communication anxiety) or in front of the class (stage fright), or in listening to or learning a verbalise message (receiver anxiety) are suggested to be all manifestations of communication apprehension (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127). People whose typical communication apprehension is high tend to encounter even great difficulty communicating in a foreign language class where they have little control of the communicative situation, there exists a disparity between learners mature thoughts and their immature foreign language proficiency, and their performance is constantly monitored (Horwitz, 1986 Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). The inability to express o neself fully or to understand others not only lead to thwarting and apprehension in typical apprehensive communicators but also make many otherwise talkative people become silent in a foreign language class (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127).Test-anxiety, or the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate performance in an evaluative situation (Sarason, 1984, cited in Aida, 1994, p. 157), is also pertinent to a discussion of foreign language anxiety because performance evaluation is an ongoing feature of most foreign language classes (Horwitz, 1986, p. 127). Some learners may inappropriately view foreign or second language production as a test situation rather than as an opportunity for communication (Horwitz, 1986, cited in Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). According to Horwitz (1986, p. 126), test-anxious students often station unrealistic demands on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect test performance is a failure. Unfortunately, students who are tes t-anxious may wear considerable stress and difficulty in foreign language classrooms since daily evaluation of skills are quite common and frequent in most foreign language classes. Moreover, making mistakes is inevitable in the language learning process, and even the brightest and most prepared students often make errors (Horwitz, 1986, p. 128).Fear of negative evaluation, the third performance anxiety related to foreign language learning, is defined as apprehension about others evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectations that others would evaluate oneself negatively (Watson and Friend, 1969, cited in Horwitz, 1986, p. 128). Although similar to test anxiety to some extent, fear of negative evaluation is broader in scope in that it applies to any social and/or evaluative situation in which an individual worries about the possibility of being unfavorably evaluated by others (Wilson, 2006, p. 68). Horwitz (1986, p. 128) pointed out what distinguishes foreign language learning from other academic subjects is that language learners are continually evaluated by the teacher and may also feel they are subject to the evaluation of their peers. Unfortunately, learners who are highly concerned about the impressions others are forming of them tend to behave in ways that minimize the possibility of negative evaluations (Horwitz and Gregersen, 2002, p. 562). In foreign language classrooms, students with a fear of negative evaluation tend to sit passively in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom activities that could otherwise enhance their improvement of the language skills or even cutting class to avoid anxiety situations (Aida, 1994, p. 157).3.2.3. Reliability and Validity of the FLCASHorwitz et al. (1986) developed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) as a 33-item self-report instrument scored on the basis of a 5-point Likert-type scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Students respond to statements regarding thei r reactions to foreign/second language classes. Possible scores on the FLCAS range from 33 to 165 the higher the score, the higher the anxiety level.Items were developed from student reports, interviews with specialists about their clinical experiences with anxious language learners, the authors teaching experiences, and a review of related measures of anxiety.According to Horwitz (1986, p. 129), pilot testing of the scale with seventy five introductory Spanish students at the University of Texas at Austin demonstrated its reliability and validity. In terms of internal reliability, the FLCAS achieved internal reliability, achieving an alpha coefficient of .93 with all items producing significant corrected item-total scale correlations. Test- retest reliability over eight weeks yielded an r = .83 (p In one sample of 108 introductory students of Spanish, scores ranged from 45 to 147 (M = 94.5, Mdn = 95.0, SD = 21.4). Internal consistency, as measured by Cronbachs alpha coefficient, wa s .93, and test-retest reliability over 8 weeks was r = .83, p = .001, n = .78.Aida (1994) tested Horwitz et al.s construct of foreign language anxiety by validating an adapted FLCAS for students of Japanese. She aimed to discover the underlying structure of the FLCAS and to examine whether or not the structure reflects the three kinds of anxiety presented earlier. Her study, using ninety-six students of Japanese, yielded internal consistency of .94 (X = 96.7 and SD = 22.1), using Cronbachs alpha coefficient. The reliability, mean, standard deviation, and range obtained in this study were very similar to those of Horwitz (1986), whose sample was a group of students in introductory Spanish classes.FIGURE 2 (Aida, 1994, p. 159)Manifestations of Foreign Language Learning AnxietyAnxiety, in general, can have physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioral manifestations, and these manifestations can differ with each individual.According to Oxford (1999, cited in Williams Andrade, 20 09, p. 4, and cited in Yanling Guizheng, 2006, p. 98)Physical symptoms can include, for example, rapid heartbeat, go across tension, dry mouth, and excessive perspiration.Psychological symptoms can include embarrassment, feelings of helplessness, fear, going blank, inability to concentrate, as well as poor memory recall and retention.Behavioral symptoms can include physical actions such as squirming, fidgeting, playing with hair or clothing nervously touching objects, stuttering or stammering displaying jittery behavior, being unable to regurgitate the sounds or intonation of the target language even after repeated practice. More importantly, behavioral symptoms of anxiety can be manifested in negative avoidance behaviors like inappropriate silence, monosyllabic or non-committal responses, lack of eye contact, unwillingness to participate, coming late, arriving unprepared, showing indifference, cutting class, and withdrawal from the course.Other signs which might reflect language anxiety overstudying, perfectionism, hostility, excessive competitiveness, as well as excessive self-effacement and self-criticism (e.g. I am so stupid).Causes of Foreign Language Learning AnxietyResearch has indicated a number of ways that learning a foreign language can cause anxiety for language learners. Young (1991, p. 427), in a statewide review, summarized the personal factors and instructional factors contributing to language anxiety into six categories 1) personal and interpersonal anxieties, 2) learner beliefs about language learning, 3) instructor beliefs about language teaching, 4) instructor learner interactions, 5) classroom procedures, and 6) language testing. Generally, the six factors proposed by Young (1991) combine with other factors indicated by other researchers to form three main sources of foreign language anxiety learners characteristics, teachers characteristics, and classrooms characteristics (Tallon, 2009, p. 2).Personal factors (Learner characteristics )Personal and interpersonal issues, according to Young (1991, p. 427), are possibly the most commonly cited and discussed sources of language anxiety. Several studies have discovered the yoke between anxiety and proficiency (Aida, 1994 Gardner, 1985 Gardner et al., 1997, cited in Zhang, 2010, p. 9). There are significant differences between high proficiency and low proficiency students in language anxiety level with the low proficiency students being much more anxious (Young, 1991). In a similar vein, Horwitz (1986) attributed anxiety to learners immature communicative ability in the foreign language. On the other hand, several other researchers argued that low self-esteem and competitiveness are the two significant sources of learner anxiety. Bailey (1983, cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) studied the diary entries of 11 students and reported that competitiveness can lead to anxiety when language learners compare themselves to others or to an idealized self-image. Likewise, Price (199 1, cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) stated that the majority of her subjects believed their language skills to be weaker than those of the others in class that they werent doing a good job and that everyone else looked down on them. As regards to self-esteem, Hembree (1988, cited in Young, 1991, p. 427) implied that students who start out with a self-perceived low ability level in a foreign or second language are most likely to experience language anxiety. Krashen (1981, cited in Ohata, 2005, p. 5) also suggests that anxiety can arise according to ones degree of self-esteem as those students tend to worry about what their peers or friends think, in fear of their negative responses or evaluation. In addition, Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) examined the relationship between foreign language anxiety and perfectionism, and found some common characteristics between anxious language learners and perfectionists (e.g., higher standards for their English performance, a greater tendency toward pro crastination, more worry over the opinions of others, and a higher level of concern over their errors). The authors supposed that such characteristics may make language learning unpleasant and less successful for the perfectionist students than for others. Another personality trait that has a positive correlation with foreign language anxiety is shyness Chu (2008, cited in Zhang, 2010, p. 11) sustain that anxiety, willingness to communicate, and shyness function together to create a negative impact on Taiwanese students study of English.Learner beliefs about language learning, if erroneous and unrealistic, are also a major factor contributing to language anxiety (Young, 1991, p. 428). According to Tallon (2008, p. 4) when students unrealistic expectations about language learning are not met it can lead to negative feelings about ones intelligence and abilities. For example, the language learners in Horwitzs study (1988, cited in Young, 1991, p. 428) 1) expressed great concern over the correctness of their utterances 2) placed a great deal of stress on speaking with an excellent accent 3) supported the notion that language learning is primarily translating from English and memorizing vocabulary words and grammatical rules as well as 4) believed that two years is enough time to become fluent in another language and believed some people were more able to learn a foreign language than others. Such erroneous beliefs may make the students later become disappointed and frustrated. In addition, Horwitz (1989, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) found a link between several language learning beliefs and levels of foreign language anxiety in university Spanish students the more anxious learners judged language learning to be relatively difficult and themselves to possess relatively low levels of foreign language aptitude. Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) also found that the following beliefs are associated with learner anxiety the feeling that mastering a language is an overwhelming task the feeling that one needs to go through a translation process in order to communicate in the target language the difficulty of keeping everything in ones head and the belief that learning a language is easier at an earlier age. Tallon (2008, p. 5) concluded that all of those faulty beliefs may cause the students to have unrealistic expectations about the language learning process, and thus lead to anxiety.Instructional factorsteacher characteristicsInstructor beliefs about language teaching, which determines instructor-learner interactions, are a further source of language anxiety because the teachers assumption on the role of language teachers may not always correspond to the students needs or expectations toward the him or her (Ohata, 2005, p. 7). Young (1991, p. 428) listed the following teacher beliefs which have been shown to evoke feelings of anxiety in students it is needed for the teacher to be intimidating at times the instructor is supposed to co rrect every single mistake made by the students group or partner work is not appropriate because it can get out of control the teacher should do most of the talking and the instructors role is that of a drill sergeant. According to Tallon (2008, p. 5), a judgmental teaching attitude (Samimy, 1994) and a harsh manner of teaching (Aida, 1994) are closely linked to student fear in the classroom.Besides, Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 5) found the following characteristics of the teacher to be associated with anxiety absence of teacher support, unsympathetic personalities, lack of time for personal attention, favoritism, absence that the class does not provide students with the tools necessary to match up with the teachers expectations, and the sense of being judged by the teacher or wanting to impress the teacher. Moreover, Young (1999, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 6) stated that using speaking activities that put the learner on the spot in front of their classmates without all owing adequate preparation are also sources of anxiety for many students. Additionally, Ando (1999, cited in Tallon, 2008, p. 6) argued that having a native vocaliser for a teacher can cause anxiety because the teacher may lack the sensitivity of the learning process or the teachers English may be hard for students to understand.Classroom characteristicsClassroom procedures and other classrooms characteristics are the third major source of foreign language learning anxiety.Young (1990, cited in Tallon, p. 6) proposed a list of classroom activities which are perceived as anxiety-provoking (1) spontaneous role play in front of the class (2) speaking in front of the class (3) oral presentations or skits in front of the class (4) presenting a prepared dialogue in front of the class and (5) writing work on the board. Similarly, Palacios (1998, cited in Tallon, p. 6) found demands of oral production, feelings of being put on the spot, the pace of the class, and the element of being evalu ated (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) to be anxiety-producing to students.Notably, Oxford (1999, cited in Tallon, p. 7) emphasized learning and teaching styles as a potential source of language anxiety. If the instructors teaching style and a students learning style are not compatible, style wars can trigger or heighten anxiety levels.In addition, it is understandable that language testing may lead to foreign language anxiety (Young, 1991, p. 428). For example, difficult tests, especially tests that do not match the teaching in class, as well as unclear or unfamiliar test tasks and formats can all create learner anxiety. effects of Foreign Language Learning AnxietyForeign Language Learning Anxiety and its Associations with the three stages of the Language Acquisition process (Input, Processing, and Output)The effects of language anxiety can be explained with reference to the cognitive consequences of anxiety arousal (Eysenck, 1979 Schwazer, 1986 cited in MacIntyre Gardner, 1994, p. 2). When an individual becomes anxious, negative self-related cognition begins thoughts of failure (e.g. I will never be able to finish this), self-deprecation (I am just no good at this), and avoidance (I wish this was over) begin to emerge. They consume cognitive resources that might otherwise be applied to the learning task. This then creates even more difficulties in cognitive processing because fewer available resources may lead to failure, which results in more negative cognitions that further consume cognitive resources, and so on. According to MacIntyre (1995, p. 26), anxiety can be problematic for the language learner because language learning itself is a middling intense cognitive activity that relies on encoding, storage, and retrieval processes (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 26), and anxiety interferes with each of these cognitive processes by creating a divided attention scenario (Krashe

The definition of children with PMLD

The definition of clawren with PMLDChildren with great(p) multiple erudition disabilities (PMLD) experience barriers to communication and interaction which pr scourt them having the replete opportunity to an appropriate statement. It is essential to remember that as they sh be the same prevalent aims as opposite small fryren in school(Ref), that is, they need to progress to the best of their cogency. In Saudi Arabia there ar real few centers that deliver a successful course for children with PMLD (Rectory Paddock School, 1981)Be flushful this looks as if Rectory Paddock school is expressing a panorama about education in Saudi Arabia and it didnt.). More all told told over, all/ just about/ umpteen teachers atomic number 18 inexperienced and lack the ability to develop the full potential of children with PMLD. This confirms that I need to establish a greater knowledge of services in the UK and identify the positive aspects. In the past, PMLD in the UK received only rehabilitation programs that include providing basic necessities such as medical treatment and food. Recently, this practice has deepend to providing a successful course of study that directiones on the needs and abilities of the several(prenominal)s (Lacey Ouvry, 1998). This essay w paralytic therefore provide suggestions on how to achieve a successful curriculum for children with PMLD, helping to understand the wider concepts involved and how these children basin eventually reach sufficient independence by identifying their individual needs.This essay will present the definition of children with PMLD, followed by the childrens immemorial needs including their physical, stunning and communication needs. It will then go on to look at the way of organize the class way of life and then it is going to explain some of the teaching cost.The definition of children with PMLDComplicated terminology is apply to refer to children who let the sterling(prenominal) difficulties with eruditeness e.g. PMLD, stark(a) teaching disabilities (SLD), intricate learning disabilities (PLD) and severe disabilities. To understand how to educate the children, it is necessary to address more than one of the associated issues which argon related with ill grade up ones mindd term, variables and unstable definitions.The official terms use for dealing with PMLD may be different in various countries. In America the term severe is used for individuals with an IQ of 20/25 to 35/40 and moderate for those with IQ 35/40 to 50/55. In contrast, United Kingdom refers to children with IQ below 50 as having SLD (Porter, 2009). In Saudi Arabia multiple disabilities is a common term used to refer to presence of more than one disablement in a child which leads to severe educational problems which includes multiple intellectual dis roll, multi-receptive disabilities, multiplicity of disability associated with severe behavioral disorders and severe disabilities(General Directorate of special education , 2001)). The term learning disabilities used in the UK should not be confused with terms used in other countries where they meet the same meaning as mental retardation or intellectual disabilities. UK calls problems such as dyslexia specific learning difficulties or specific learning disabilities (Rennie, 2007). some other problem which arises is that many moot that SLD and PMLD be synonymous terms. in that respect is a lack of differentiation between profound learning disabilities and multiple disabilities as the two terms invite correspondent needs and come under the same heading of Severe Learning Disabilities (Evans and W ar 1987). Some writers, such as (Aird, 2001) continue dealing with these two terms as synonymous. On the other hand, Swift(2005) defines the two terms differently. He says that SLD refers to children who stomach emotional needs, some students may use signs and symbols to support their communication and/or sensory hurts in addition general cognitive difficulties and mobility difficulty. On the other hand, PMLD regards to children who present physical disabilities, sensory impairment or severe medical condition. Although there are similarities in the definitions, it is preferred to use PMLD as it is widely accepted in Britain (Ware, 2009). Furthermore, some children with profound learning disabilities are described as PMLD whereas there are few flock with profound learning disabilities who view no other severe impairments (Ware Healey,1994).To become more aware of this convention of children, it is necessary to identify their characteristics. Children with PMLD have profound intellectual impairment and other multiple disabilities including sensory, physical or autism (Lacy Ouvry 1998. To illustrate that, I will use the example of Rett Autism Syndrome displaying an inability to performer push functional actions including eye gaze and terminology and slowed brain function (Pierangelo Giuliani, 2008). Howe ver, they are described as not a homogenous group (SCAA, 1996). In my master practice, I have dealt with children who had severe physical or ocular disabilities but did not necessarily have profound learning disabilities and some who had profound learning disabilities with good motor ability, learning, motor and sensory skills and thus needs differed from child to child. Another approach to a definition suggests that children with PMLD are in the first gear cardinal stages of Piagets Sensory motor development (What is this_ (Clark, 1991). However, from my experience the pre-process stage, which says that the child in this stage can combining attributes samples of common objects and classifying them. Children with PMLD may have the ability to recognize optic word (MAKTON) system and classify the thing that he/she wants to do as an activity. In relation to PMLD symptoms children may have behavior disorders which are challenging for teachers (SCAA, 1996). The link between behavio r and physical disability may or may not be a casual one. For example, disability may lead to first gear which further increases the take of disability (Marten, 1980). From my experience, behavior is not only influenced by genetic and neurological factors but is due to the negative interaction and races between the child and the society.Another approach to categories concentrates on the IQ in classified the person with PMLD whose has IQ level below 20. Recently the World wellness Organization altered a more social model of disability which classify on the individual strength and the social barriers that may compound a disability. Internationally triple criteria are regarded as requiring to be met before learning disabilities can be identified intellectual impairment, social dysfunction and early onset (The World Health Organization WHO, 2001(. On the other hand people with PMLD function equal to or less than one fifth of their chronological age (Sebba, 1988). This is a rather o ld referenceSome prefer to down play IQ on terms of the students curricular needs they call someone with severe learning difficulties if he/she attends an SLD or school. It can overly consider what happens to children when they leave school, or we may distinguish pupils with moderate and severe learning difficulties by reflecting on the age at which their problems were first identified (Farrell, 1997).(Quite a lot of this section uses some dated stuff is this because you can see similarities between those debates and the ones now happening in your country.)Criteria for placing pupils into categories have changed over the time. Children who may have had PMLD in the past may be now regarded as having multiple disabilities but not PLD (Ouvry Saunders, 2001). This last consideration is of enormous brilliance when considering learning with PMLD children with PMLD are now classified to be more intellectually able. The current percentage of children with PMLD has increased as a result of high level of health care provided (Lacey Ouvry, 1998) where the number of adults with PMLD will raise from 78 in 2009 to 105 in 2026, as in average 3 in 2009 to 5 in 2026 (centre for Disabilities Research CeDR, 2009).The definition has changed over time linked with the changing of the education system from segregation to inclusion. I will illustrate this by references to curriculum access. Around 1971, children with the around profound disabilities in the UK were excluded from education, cared for in wards as they were considered unable to follow the standard curriculum (Clark, 1991 Lacy Ouvry, 1998). However, after this point, some children who attended schools for pupils with LD as well as had severe physical disabilities require specialized facilities but which would possible to provide in Educational Sub Normal ESN(S) classes (Rectory Paddock School, 1981)., Historically some writers assume that Special Care Units (SCUs) remain the only setting specifically able to prov ided for children with PLD and additional disabilities in schools catering for severe learning disabilities (Evans Ware, 1987) In contrast, terms special care is not acceptable as the provision provide for PMLD are varied (Sebba, 1988).In the UK, the curriculum needs have given more help to other educational aspects (Cline Frederickson, 2009). Children with PMLD may roleplay with P1-P4 in the national curriculum where P scales provide small, achievable steps to monitor progress (Swift, 2005). Some children may even work at P levels 1-3 for the majority or all of their school life (Ware, 2009).It is hard to reach a clear definition which would be used to describe a group of children who share common characteristics with other categories. However, in my view, supported by this evidence, a child with PMLD has multi-disabilities learning disability and other disabilities. The most primal aspect in planning education is to concentrate on on the childrens requirements and needs no m atter how this group of learners is defined..Children with PMLD primary needs which affect their ability to learnChildren with multiple disabilities face many problems which challenge adults who work with them. A careful analysis to their needs is required to understand exactly what is preventing progress (Stone, 1995). thither is a wide spectrum of special educational needs that are frequently inter-related. They may fall into at least one of four areas communication and interaction, wisdom and learning, behavior, emotional and social development and sensory and/or physical (The Code of Practice, 2001).Physical needsThere is some physical impairment that can be diagnosed from birth cerebral palsy, spin bifida, congenital abnormalities of the skeleton and other rare neuromuscular diseases (Hogg Sebba, 1986a). PMLD has a lack of independent, muscle spasm, abnormal reflex activity, inability to pull strings bladder or bowels and congenital abnormalities of skeleton which make peopl e feel uncomfortable and cause other problems (Clark, 1991 Hogg Sebba 1986).Physical impairment affects other split of the childs life universe unable to move well may be at risk of developing distortions of automobile trunk shape over a conclusion of time (Rennie, 2007 Fulford Brown, 1976). The teacher needs to understand these problems and focus on basic physical therapy in a curriculum plan (Clark, 1991), with a holistic approach (Rennie, 2007) and lifelong commitment which influences the majority of the individuals time at school and home rather than an in powerful ritual (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). Yet this as I believe does not necessarily mean therapy used in traditional ways. Many creative methods a physiotherapist can use in cooperation with the teacher in the schoolroom in childrens mobility curriculum and teaching methods. Traditional ways should not be taught in the same order (Stone, 1995)What do you mean?. I would suggest use things from everyday surround would be mo re suitable for physical therapy, merging skills training for recognizing annotate and rolling to train muscles by placing the child on a mat between a green and a red ball and asking them to move in the direction of either ball. This way the child learns colour recognition, exercises and s the game. Children learn more quickly if they enjoy themselves.As a child with PMLD spends most of his time at home, therapy can be successful when the parents have major roles in planning and implementing (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). The best way is to raise parents awareness and to make fully participate in the therapy which lead to greater improvement in the child.Sensory needsChildren with PMLD often experience sensory problems. There are a number of different needs arising from sensory impairment, one arising directly from the impairment such as visual or auditory impairment (Lacey Ouvey, 1998) which have adverse effects on linguistic development, behaviour, and emotional adjustment, socially isol ated and the general quality of a persons life (Clark, 1991 Ellis, 1992). Other problems are often environmental. Parents and teachers can lose interest in interacting meaningfully with their child who does not provide cues or rewards in the form of a smile. From my experience, children with PMLD are often ignored by their peers and teachers who interact with children who communicate more.Hearing impairment and learning disabilities are not clearly separated (Kropka Williams, 1986) and cannot be underestimated as the hearing impairment is not as obvious to an observer as some other impairments (Sebba,1988). In this matter it is primary aim of managing sensory impairments is to try to allow children to have access to the same quality of life and experiences by apply whatever hearing and sight they have to the best of their ability or by helping them to make use of their other senses such as touch and smell (Sebba, 1988).Communication needsWhen I was in the early phases of my train ing, I remember there was a teacher who sang to a child with PMLD. I wondered why this teacher was choosing to do so when the child could not hear. The child smiled and laughed at the teacher and reacted positively in her presence. It became clear to me that the child needed to have interaction and could communicate in a specific way as he could interpret some sensory information.If communication fails, then other social activities go away as well. Children with profound learning disabilities come on massive delays in communication, which makes it hard to communicate, convey ideas and experiences with other people. (Hogg Sebba, 1986) Despite that in fact every child is a unique case, speech is not the only means of communication (Hogg Sebba 1986). Some children who are described as not having the ability to traditionally communicate are able to show preferences when they are given a choice (Glenn? OBrien 1994). This is confirmed by my experience which shows that these children h ave a lot of stored energy which just needs continuous attention and time to be displayed or disabilities are likely to deteriorate. The code of practice raises that most children with special educational needs have strengths and difficulties in one, some, or all of the areas of communication. Children will need to continue developing their linguistic competences (Code of Practice, 2001).With the knowledge that there is no cure(This takes us right into the medical model is that your intention for these needs, there are many ways to help these children get the best possible outcome for growth and development, to perform any tasks that are necessary in their daily lives to remaining consolidation in society. Thus we need to build an appropriate program for children with PMLD on an individual basis to meet individual needs, where in the last ten old age there has been a big change in the ways of dealing with children with PMLD and schools are now receiving children who have several needs (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). command and learning is tortuous. deep down this discussion, little attention will be given to curriculum content for two reasons. First, the lack of compatibility between the curriculum in Saudi Arabia and England. Second, because for this group of learners focus on strongteaching and learning including accede to several different teaching methods is of prome concern. Even if there are good teaching practices put in place, they will not work if the environment is not suitable for learning (Sebba, 1988). Therefore it will focus on how to organize the learning environment where children should be more long-familiar with the classroom, and anticipate the activities (Ouvry Saunders, 2001). You have introduced t/l first and then the envornment. Is it logical to write the sections in the same order or to re-order these comments?How to organize the learning environmentChildren will need to overcome classroom obstacles before they are able to start to learn , this can be handled by the establishment of an appropriate learning environment .There are numerous necessary measures to build and maintain an appropriate environment for children with PMLD it is vital that this environment is well organized to suit their needs. Regardless of whether children with PMLD are amend in a specialist environment or in mainstream school, (Ware, 1994) suggests three core principles in the organization of a classroom the organization of time, people and material in an environment which can all overlap.The physical environment organizationThe physical environment plays a role in raising childrens motivation to work. Teachers should define each area of classroom and ensure that the environment is not distracting to help the child to learn easily (Byers, 1998) for example, the work area should not include visual distraction which can confuse and have a negative effect on the learning process (Porter, 2002).In addition the size of the room must be consider ed, if the room is too large or open this can distraction the child (Nind et al, 2001). From my experience I remember that also the small room encourages unsuitable behaviour, teachers was putting the pupils standers behind the door because the room was very smallwhich can make movement in and out of the room difficult this subsequently upsets the children and do him react in an unsuitable manner.Another matter is organizing the classroom based on the childs needs. For example, it is often a good idea to place children with the most profound physical needs in easily accessible points in the classroom so they can move more freely (Algozzine Ysseldyke, 2006). For children with visual impairments, strip sack is unsuitable as it does not provide good distinction between different objects, and so spot lighting, colored bulbs or dark areas should be used to show different areas as well as different textures.Furthermore, I have found that it is beneficial for children with PMLD to have a designated seat in the classroom as this promotes self-confidence and a sense of familiarity (Nind et, al 2001). But which position are the best for seating. A study found that children who functioned at a press down level worked well in a prone position (Park et al, 2005). Other study suggests that position is not simply a matter of optimizing attention, but the seismic disturbance on other functions, such as hand use and spinal extension (McEwen, 2002).The position of the teacher and the other staff is significant. They should be able to prise the child and their emotions, so that they can help the child sufficiently. If they are behind the child or to the side, they may not be able to see the Children may need help with their medication if they have to take it through the school day (Algozzine Ysseldyke, 2006).The social environment organizationKnowledge of the child is very important in the social environment organization, knowing what they like, dislike, how they interac t and communicate education should happen co-actively (Cartwright Wind-cowie, 2005).Teacher also should not become dominant in the relationship rather, they should help the child learn in their specific way. There are three main models for the teacher/pupil relationship the teacher high-and-mighty, the pupil dominating or a two way dialogue. The third is the hardest, but if successful, the best (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). The final model requires very strict planning and organization in order that it works well.Rewards are also positive in order to build a good social environment. The teacher should understand that some children with PMLD will key out standard encouragement techniques, such as cheering, very discouraging and distracting. Therefore, the teacher should observe signals from the child to discern what they like and do not like (Sebba, 1988).Another matter which is very important in the social aspect is that teachers should understand how the child would react to failure, in this way they can prepare for it. (Corker, 1992) suggests that children should be advance to see failure not as a result of inability but because of lack of effort or dedication. In this way, they are empowered to change it and succeed in the future.The time organizationThe most difficult balance to maintain is how to organize time inside the classroom with regards to the curriculum and the ways of teaching. There should be an appropriate division of time between national curriculum, non-national curriculum based activities and therapy (Ware, 1994). I remember from my experience that children have their own schedule dual-lane between the child needs. ExpandAnother matter, which is widely discussed, is the way of teaching children. Which way of teaching a child with PMLD is more beneficial? Children with PMLD would benefit from being taught in a group. If the children with PMLD are placed together they may become more perceptive and have a greater interest in what they are doing (Ho gg Sebba, 1986). Although group work can be effective, in reality can be deceptive. A child who appears to be working in a group may in fact actually be working alone (Bennet Cass, 1988). Some specialists infer that in teaching children with PMLD, there should be group work involved and also individual work this is seen as the most beneficial practice (Ware, 1994). From my experiences whilst the teacher worked with the class as a whole, the teaching assistant would study a child from the group in order to provide individual focus to that child. This enables effective and beneficial learning for the children as it advantageous for the childs learning to have individual attention.The grouping learning a raises the question of how much time should the teacher spend with an individual child compared to how much time spent with the wide class. I think group work is imperative and therefore time should be devoted to this, particularly because children should be encouraged to develop a wareness of their peers, this is cognise through group work (Cartwright Wind-Cowie, 2005). However, I realize from my experience the specific method influences the way of teaching whether individually or in a group. (Ware, 1994) mention some examples for effective grouping are suggested, Scripted or Jigsawing which are used with heterogeneous group without losing the benefits of individual work.In addition, there are also issues about whether the same activities should take place at the same time each day or not. There should be a clear occasion established and a consistent timetable, especially at the beginning of the day with registration so that the child knows what is happening and so therefore is not spooky (Corker, 1992 Ware, 1994). However, this can sometimes be problematic because it must be accepted that some activities will take longer for children with PMLD to carry out, in these cases certain allowances must be made. (Orelove et al, 2001).There are other issues rela ted to the timetable of the childrens learning, there is no evidence that children will learn best in the morning. There is evidence that children with PMLD may be best taught if they have therapy in the morning so that they are calm for the other activities. Moreover, there is the issue of medicinal side effects and how this can cause problems with learning (Ware, 1994). All this must be taken into account when time planning to keep the attention focused and to help the child to learn.Teaching approachesThe special education literature now focuses more on the teaching methods than the curriculum content. I will mention some of the teaching methods which are used. labor analysis in which a task is broken down into manageable pieces with clear objectives, making it easier for the child to learn (Sebba, 1988). Errorless learning, an exercise in which examples are given to the children yet only require only one possible solution, thus increasing the opportunity of reward for the child . Do you agree with errorless learningRecording, where all the practices are planned and recalled so they are then assessed (Hogg Sebba, 1986). Next is the use of ICT to help with communication and with social interaction. Also to aid choice making as it will help with life skills and requires a lot of concentration (Ware, 2009). Using pictures to communicate choice and show correlation between different pictures and objects has often been effective with the use of commands (Porter Ashdown, 2002). There are also three main types of holistic approach conductive education, patterning and coactive intervention (Hogg Sebba, 1986). Acoustic bells can be used to raise an intense sound environment to encourage learning and concentration (Mednick, 2007).It is now necessary to evaluate two teaching approaches, intensive interaction and multisensory approach. Because these two methods focus on the children with PMLD which I mention them previously. I will be used as illustrative examples to examine the techniques that can be employed to optimize the learning experience for the child with PMLD.Intensive interactionTeaching children with PMLD is often focused on communication (Ware, 2009) which is fundamental and makes child learn about themselves and others (Hewett Nind, 1998). However, sometimes children with PMLD are taught a way of communication which they cannot understand or which may be limited and therefore unsatisfactory. In my experience, teaching that solely focuses on the core curriculum was only effective for a number of children, leaving others unresponsive to the teacher. During the activity the teacher would help the child physically whilst using different way of communicating, for typeface by photo cards, however this may not be beneficial every time. From my reading I have established that these children were entitled to communicate in their own way they should not have to be taught a standardized way of communication, at least in the initial stage s. By using our body language and gaining feedback by watching others reactions (Caldwell, 2008) this makes communication easier as the child will understand that the teacher can understand their emotions.The standard ways of Intensive interaction refers to when the adult working one to one to with the child to mimics any communication behaviour of the learner of by using the childs own method (Watson, 1994) to makes teaching and learning easier (Hewett Nind, 1998), and to develop sociability, communication, cognitive abilities, emotional well-being, constructive interaction with immediate environment and self awareness (Nind Hewett ,1994). I think this is practical and reality, if we see how the mother play and communicate with her child, we dont compare between children with PMLD with the infant, What I want to highlight, is how the baby feel happy with his/her mother imitations and his reaction and how he continue in communication.The StrategiesThere are two studies which say that intensive interaction is a very good way of developing communication and social skills. It must be employed consistently and used efficiently in order for it to be effective (Watson Fisher, 1997 Kellett, 2003).The focus must be on the quality of the interaction sociability and communication and not the outcome (Hewett Nind, 1998).Records must be kept of all interaction so that any changes, even if minute, can be remembered. It is often difficult to do this without records as the changes can be very small (Irvine, 1998).There must be a limiting of numbers of staff and volunteers so that there is routine and the people can all be fully trained to their abilities (Ware, 1996).Intensity, sensitivity and reflection are key in implementing this method. The method encourages awareness of those around the learner, and ignores ideas about tasks and pay or incorrect ideas, and so puts the precedence on the learning process. (Hewett Nind, 1998).Intensive interaction should be used wit hin a group environment to make it more standard and to ensure that abuse allegations do not occur (Nind Hewett, 1994).The process of intensive interaction is included in this. An advantage to adopting this approach is its rest it does not require materials and therefore can be used in the home. What makes this approach more significant is that it can be used easily at home (Irvine, 1998).There are some problems encountered in this methods, the abilities to make a response is sometimes weak. The adult may be tired or the child may anxious (Kellett Nind, 2008) the child may want to continue to interact when no one is available (Irvine, 1998) so it is necessary for the adults to learn to tolerate a delay (Maggs Samuel 1998). Another problematic issue is that Intensive interaction works for some people but not all. So although there are some overriding principles for using intensive interaction, the approach must be changeable and flexible so that the child can achieve the most pos sible. (Kellett Nind, 2008). However, for those it does work for, it is comfort very difficult to prove that intensive interaction is the only cause for improvement (Irvine, 1998).The multisensory approachSome children, who have sensory ability such as sight, may not understand how to use it or how to interpret what they see. Thus teachers should help children to use all the senses to enable good learning.One of the ways of the using multisensory approach is the sensory room. This can be described as a reactive environment (Mednick, 2007). There are two ways to define the sensory room or snoezelen () the actual space and the impact on the child. The space can be characterized by the physical attributes, size and complexity, size of the room is very important so the child does not feel overwhelmed by the space or out of control. The same is for ideas about complexity there should not be a sensory overload. There is no set list of things which are including in a sensory space, whic h can include simple materials or complex interactive electronic equipment (Stephenson, 2002). Other physical aspect are the different type of sensory room, there are six primary kinds of rooms fair room, dark room, sound room, interactive room, water room, soft play rooms finally there are outdoor spaces in the gardens each room have aims and goals (Pagliano, 1999). Although the only limitations on these spaces is imagination, the childs likes and dislikes are the primary influence as some might not like a white room but may love a water experience. If the child can exert control over their environment, they will develop control and autonomy and greater self confidence (Stephenson, 2002).The other aspect of the definition is the impact on the childs ability, which includes good communication, movement, cognitive ability, emotions, behavioral changes, life skills and good expressive arts (Longhorn, 1988). This makes it one of the most effective methods to teach a child with PMLD be cause it makes learning easier (Fowler, 2008) and fun for

Politics and Social Policy in Australia

Politics and Social Policy in AustraliaSocial policy argon the guidelines used for the changing, maintenance or the creation of living conditions that ar perceived to be conducive to the public assistance of gay beings or con production line. This is what tops it part of the public policy that deals with social issues (Alcock, Erskine, whitethorn, 2003).Social policy applies to the policies used by governments for social offbeat and social protection. The main uphold under this is the social services and the social welf be of the press out. Social policy also applies to the ways in which the offbeat is developed within a given society where it stands for a range of issues which extend far beyond the governments actions. This includes the ways used to promote the welfare and the social-economic conditions which enable or spurt the developing of the welfare.Social Policy can be used to refer to the academic study of the written report.The main aim of Social Policies is to improve the welfare of kind-hearted beings by for instance meeting their various needs. It can thus be defined as public policy and practice in the subject fields of health care, human services, labour, education, inequality and some other issues like criminal justice.Social policy can be influenced by among other things, religion and the politicians religious beliefs. The conservatives in the political arena prefer a more traditional approach which can be able to favour individual initiative and underground endeavour in social policy. Those who are considered to be political liberals are for the idea of guaranteeing equal rights and entitlements to e genuinelybody. They prefer using the state regulation or policy so as to support their ideologies.Although in more or less areas Social policy is only known for the regulation and governing of human behaviour as far as sexuality and morality issues are concerned, social policies deal with among other things the rules surroundi ng marriage and divorce in most societies, adoption, legal status of recreational drugs, prostitution, euthanasia, spontaneous abortion and how its practice can be regulated(Alcock, 2003).Social Policy and administration was developed in the early twentieth century with an aim of complementing the social work studies. The subject has since developed to conk an academic subject concerned with the welfare of the state and social services.It is non a discipline but a subject area which borrows a lot from social science disciplines like sociology, social work, economics, political science, history, philosophy, law among others (Alcock, 2003).Welfare State is an English term used to refer to the furnish of welfare services to pot by the government (Titmuss, 1963). This type of planning indicates that the concerned government assumes responsibility for the welfare of its citizens. States which provide the welfare state are referred to as welfare states. In some states, the welfare state is provided by government services which may either be in computeent or volunteer(prenominal). The provider of the welfare services can also be the state government or a comp whatever or agency sponsored by the state, a private company or organization or a non-profit organization. In such cases, the welfare state changes and it is replaced with other terms like welfare agreement and welfare society.Welfare is used to mean well being. For instance in welfare economics, it is used in terms of the well being and interests of people and the things which they choose to have. Welfare can also be used to refer to various services provided by the state to protect people under diametrical conditions for instance health, after retirement, childhood etc. In the European Union, this is c everyed Social Protection. In the United States, welfare is the financial aid given to the poor people for instance the Temporary Aid which is given to Needy families in America (Titmuss, 1963).The we lfare state means different things in different countries. In some countries, it may be used to mean the ideal provision model for the citizens whereby the state takes the responsibility to provide comprehensive and universal welfare of its citizens which is basically the welfare provided by the state. In countries where the term means social protection, the provision is undertaken by the combination of independent, voluntary and government services this is what makes the countries be referred to as welfare states (Holetzky, 2006).In as much as Welfare is associated with needs of the people, it is aimed to cover beyond what people need and with it to look into wellbeing, to provide people with choices and enable them to choose their private goals, aims, objectives or ambitions.Welfare state is therefore a government that completely provides for the welfare of its citizens. This is what makes it involved in the lives of the citizens by providing for their physical, material and soci al needs kinda of the people providing for their own.The main purpose for this is to create economic equality among the citizens and ensure that the standards of living are equitable for all citizens. Among the things provided by the welfare state are education, housing, sustenance, healthcare, unemployment insurance, pension, supplemental income, and equal wages by controlling price and wages, public transport, childcare among other goods and services. The provisions are paid for through government insurance programs and taxes.Arguments for welfare.A number of arguments for collective provision have been put across. Most governments should be in a position to recognize the arguments which support the provision of the welfare (Spicker, 2008). The arguments are however not about whether the welfare should exist but how much provision should be allocated. The arguments supporting welfare areHumanitarian, where the major concern is indigence and this makes provision of welfare a key concern in the developments associated with welfare provision.The other argument is Religious. The major religions in the world advocate for benignity as a religious duty and almost all religions require collective responsibility in the community where one lives or what can be referred to as mutual social responsibility.The third argument for the provision of welfare is Mutual Self-Interest. This is due to the many welfare systems developed from a combination of mutualistic activities as opposed to those from state activities.The other argument is democratic in that the social protection is put in place hand-in-hand with the existing democratic rights.Finally, the argument for provision of welfare is what is referred to as Practical. The explanation behind this is that welfare provision has social and economic benefits. The countries which have widespread systems of social protection towards the citizens tend to be richer with very low levels of scantiness however it is hard to es tablish what comes before the other, the welfare or the wealth (Holetzky, 2006).It is important to give welfare to the poor in any society (Vives, 1999). This can be done by for instance provision of work for those who are able but poor. This willing curb idleness among those who are not financially stable provided that the victims are fit for work health wise and age wise. The state can help those living in poverty by ensuring that they have learnt a certain trade which will ensure that they can be able to provide for themselves and any other people who depend on them.The other group of people who should be given welfare are the dissipated. Much as their fortunes have dissipated through dissolute living, the state should ensure that no one dies of hunger. This group of people should however be given smaller rations and more demanding duties.In order to ensure that the welfare is not put to the wrong use, the states should ensure that all the institutions dealing with state welfare are corruption free. On the same note, everyone concerned with the welfare should perform their tasks humanely and with a lot of kindness, intimidation should never be put to use since this will be considered abuse of the power bestowed to them.Welfare should be given to all citizens who cannot access the basic requirements and there are a number of advantages first, the states without any beggars are honoured since greater peace prevails whenever everyone is provided for. The state also gains in that more citizens become more morally upright, law abiding and useful to a state which sustains them or provides a means of livelihood for them (Vives, 1999).The second advantage is that there will be fewer incidents of violence and other evils associated with poverty like theft, murders, capital offences etc. The reason for this is that poverty has a way of luring people into bad habits and provoking crime.Provision of welfare ensures greater concord among people of different classes, w hich are the poor and the wealthy.Arguments against welfare.The radical right are for the objection to the provision of welfare. The reason for this is that welfare violates the freedom of the people, its redistribution according to the radical right is theft and taxation can only be equated to forced labour (Spicker, 2008). Their arguments are base on the assumptions that everyone has the despotic right to use space as it pleases them. The people in any society are interdependent and the production of property depends on social arrangements, the rights to that property are conventional and the liability to taxation is part of those conventions.The other assumption is that the people are not for the idea of welfare provision since the redistributive arrangements are based on coercion. However, this is not necessarily true due to the fact that several countries in the world have developed welfare systems on a voluntary or mutualist basis for instance in Denmark, Finland and Sweden .The other assumption is that the rights of the individual are the supreme factor in the entire process. However, it does not make sense for a person to own all the food in the region while all the others are staving, the others should at least have some moral claim on it. Consequently, much as the property rights are important, not many people would argue that they are more important than other moral values.The other argument that the radical rights have against the provision of welfare is that welfare state has undesirable effects in practice. Economically, the argument is that economic development is more important for welfare than social provision.The radical rights also argue that the welfare state tends to undermine economic performance but no attest has been provided to support this argument.Socially, the welfare state is accused of boosting dependency and in a way trapping people to in poverty. Proof on the dynamics of poverty indicates that dependency and poverty can not b e classified as long-term. Although both tend to affect people at different stages in the course of their lives, the population of those who claim for welfare is always changing and not constant as it might appear (Spicker, 2008).The radical right argues for a residual system but the result of this is the separation and exclusion of people by the welfare.Though most of the advanced societies provide for the state welfare, its philosophy is that most of the beneficiaries who are surefooted of caring for them are not motivated to improve their lives when they have the option of depending on the government. This tends to breed hatred or resentment those who work hard but are forced to pay for the people who are not working through high taxes. This can easily lead to class warfare and forestall equality among citizens (Spicker, 2008).Conclusion.In Contemporary Australia, the state welfare is justified as a result of their benefits to the nation. According to Saunders (2007), there is an organized welfare lobby in Australia which keeps pushing for higher government spending. They use the poverty statistics to justify their claims that poverty is widespread and threatening to get worse. Australian poverty is a product of joblessness and the resolving for these is not to increase welfare payments but to ensure more of those who claim welfare get into work.The number of those relying on welfare payments as a arising of income has risen from three percent in the 1960s to sixteen percent. There is need for the re-examination of how the tax and welfare systems interact since most people pay a lot of income tax to the government only for their money to be tossed back to them through family payments and government welfare services (Saunders, 2007). The reason why it was established that the Australians could be more self-reliant especially if they were allowed to keep more of their earnings in place of the reduction on their level of dependence on the government provis ions.References.Alcock, P., Erskine, A., May M. (Eds) (2003). The students companion to social policy. Blackwell.Holetzky, S. (2006) Conjecture Corporation. What is a Welfare State? Wise Geek.Retrieved on 23/08/08 from http//www.wisegeek.comLegrand, J. Propper, C. Robinson, R. (1992). The economics of social problems, MacmillanSaunders P. (2007). The Welfare State. The Center for Independent Studies.Retrieved on 23/08/08 from http//www.cis.org.au/research/welfare.Spicker, P. (2008). Social policy Themes and Approaches. Policy Press. Titmuss, R. M. (1963). Essays on the Welfare State. Allen and Unwin. Vives, J. L. (1968). Vives Introduction to Wisdom. Teachers College Press, Columbia University New York.Vives, J. L. (1999). On Assistance to the Poor. University of Toronto Press Toronto.

The Pros and Cons of Technology Essay examples -- Term Papers Research

The Pros and Cons of Technology As far back as I can remember my family and I commit taken advantage of technology. The types of technology have changed over the years, along with our usage and dependence on it. Technology is a fundamental part of our lifestyle, including both usage and play. What is interesting is that we also have many friends who use very little technology in their day-to-day living. This drastic difference makes one wonder how demand the technology really is, and whether or not our dependence on it is healthy in the long run. It is really easy to just get caught up in using technology without thinking round the pros and cons. I was born in the 80s, so technology as, I know it, was beginning to take suffer at the mainstream United States and the world. I grew up in an era of change, whether or not this change is good is yet to be determined. When I talk about technology I am making reference to computers, automation, and most new age technology. My first expo sure to computers was at my dads lab at the University of Michigan Dearborn. The computer was ancient by todays standards, but at the time it was a marvel of technological triumph. When I was five we bought a home personal computer (pc) for my mother to write papers and utilize the Internet. I became increasingly fascinated with the possibilities the computer brought be and I was hooked. In schooltime we had little Apple 2Es that only worked when they wanted to but we still used them every day. My mother had a large influence on my relationship with technology. maiden of all, she felt strongly enough to ban video games and most television shows the first ten years of my life. I started to test educational software for children when I was five because my... ...r, not batteries, because we were out in the woods for weeks on end. I settled on a small solar panel that could accommodate the digital device. The problem was that it didnt work reliably, so just the use of the camera alon e ate up my time that could have been better spent. Progress? I think not.Now, as I bash technology for some of its downfalls, I am still reminded about its benefits for medicine, and transportation. Isnt that kind of progress beneficial for our politeness? Again the answer is, well, yes and no. Sure, we can get from point A to point B faster, but we pollute the environment and rely heavily on nonrenewable resources, which we cant afford in the long run. I foresee my generation having to confront this. I see myself using new technologies, but, alike(p) Gomez-Pena, continuing to maintain balance, and staying grounded in a less virtual world.

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Is sympathetic nature fundamentally good or bad? Mengzi argues for the instinctive rightness of human nature however, admits our inherent morality must be encouraged through propriety.Mengzi treats nature as ones natural potential, inclinations, or capacities (Liu 68). It is important to note, however, that he only views nature as the beginning. Mengzi believes that the way we behave as mature human race is the result of how successful we are in fulfilling our nature. Other Confucians, like Xunxi, argued human nature is bad his goodness is the result of mans deliberate effort (86) however, Mengzi believed the contrary to be true. According to Mengzi, nature refers to the natural inclinations of mankind. Thus, any development in the opposite complaint is a direct consequence of some form of external stimuli.Mengzi views nature as a species-specific notion (68) that separate us from lesser animals. More specifically, humans are distinct from animals because they are born with mor al lawfulnesss. Mengzi believed that because all humans belong to the same species, all humans possess the same universal nature. He goes further by claiming that due to our collective universal nature, any differences demonstrated by mature humans are owing to an external environment and soul effort (69). For the purposes of this paper, let us assume that Mengzi is correct in his argument for the innate goodness of human nature.So if humans naturally tend toward virtue and all possess the sprouts of morality within, what rationalizes the inconsistency between instinctive goodness and manifested badness? Although Mengzi highlights the heart/mind of our nature desires moral virtue, he also acknowledges that desire for physical comfort and material g... ... chef. While it is true that a humans physical and biological attributes are determined biologically, no two humans are actually identical. That being said, how can all humans morals be a biologically determined constant? It wou ld be more plausible to think that while humans have the capacity for moral virtue, the extent on which they are able to actualize this capacity differs as much(prenominal) between people as physical traits such as taste. This leads us to another criticism. The second example is also flawed. Consider the Iron Chef Bobby Flay. He is cognise for, amongst other things, being a world renowned chef as well as a television show called BBQ with Bobby Flay. Although many people would view his cookery as amazing, these tastes are not shared by all (a vegetarian for example). This is just another example of his flawed belief of a shared and universal human nature.